# Logistic regression - overview

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Logistic regression
Spearman's rho
Paired sample $t$ test
Independent variablesIndependent variableIndependent variable
One or more quantitative of interval or ratio level and/or one or more categorical with independent groups, transformed into code variablesOne of ordinal level2 paired groups
Dependent variableDependent variableDependent variable
One categorical with 2 independent groupsOne of ordinal levelOne quantitative of interval or ratio level
Null hypothesisNull hypothesisNull hypothesis
Model chi-squared test for the complete regression model:
• $\beta_1 = \beta_2 = \ldots = \beta_K = 0$
Wald test for individual regression coefficient $\beta_k$:
• $\beta_k = 0$
or in terms of odds ratio:
• $e^{\beta_k} = 1$
Likelihood ratio chi-squared test for individual regression coefficient $\beta_k$:
• $\beta_k = 0$
or in terms of odds ratio:
• $e^{\beta_k} = 1$
in the regression equation $\ln \big(\frac{\pi_{y = 1}}{1 - \pi_{y = 1}} \big) = \beta_0 + \beta_1 \times x_1 + \beta_2 \times x_2 + \ldots + \beta_K \times x_K$
$\rho_s = 0$
$\rho_s$ is the unknown Spearman correlation in the population.

In words:
there is no monotonic relationship between the two variables in the population
$\mu = \mu_0$
$\mu$ is the unknown population mean of the difference scores; $\mu_0$ is the population mean of the difference scores according to the null hypothesis, which is usually 0
Alternative hypothesisAlternative hypothesisAlternative hypothesis
Model chi-squared test for the complete regression model:
• not all population regression coefficients are 0
Wald test for individual $\beta_k$:
• $\beta_k \neq 0$
or in terms of odds ratio:
• $e^{\beta_k} \neq 1$
If defined as Wald $= \dfrac{b_k}{SE_{b_k}}$ (see 'Test statistic'), also one sided alternatives can be tested:
• right sided: $\beta_k > 0$
• left sided: $\beta_k < 0$
Likelihood ratio chi-squared test for individual $\beta_k$:
• $\beta_k \neq 0$
or in terms of odds ratio:
• $e^{\beta_k} \neq 1$
Two sided: $\rho_s \neq 0$
Right sided: $\rho_s > 0$
Left sided: $\rho_s < 0$
Two sided: $\mu \neq \mu_0$
Right sided: $\mu > \mu_0$
Left sided: $\mu < \mu_0$
AssumptionsAssumptionsAssumptions
• In the population, the relationship between the independent variables and the log odds $\ln (\frac{\pi_{y=1}}{1 - \pi_{y=1}})$ is linear
• The residuals are independent of one another
• Variables are measured without error
Also pay attention to:
• Multicollinearity
• Outliers
Sample of pairs is a simple random sample from the population of pairs. That is, pairs are independent of one another

Note: this assumption is only important for the significance test, not for the correlation coefficient itself. The correlation coefficient itself just measures the strength of the monotonic relationship between two variables.
• Difference scores are normally distributed in the population
• Sample of difference scores is a simple random sample from the population of difference scores. That is, difference scores are independent of one another
Population of difference scores can be conceived of as the difference scores we would find if we would apply our study (e.g., applying an intervention and measuring pre-post scores) to all individuals in the population.
Test statisticTest statisticTest statistic
Model chi-squared test for the complete regression model:
• $X^2 = D_{null} - D_K = \mbox{null deviance} - \mbox{model deviance}$
$D_{null}$, the null deviance, is conceptually similar to the total variance of the dependent variable in OLS regression analysis. $D_K$, the model deviance, is conceptually similar to the residual variance in OLS regression analysis.
Wald test for individual $\beta_k$:
The wald statistic can be defined in two ways:
• Wald $= \dfrac{b_k^2}{SE^2_{b_k}}$
• Wald $= \dfrac{b_k}{SE_{b_k}}$
SPSS uses the first definition

Likelihood ratio chi-squared test for individual $\beta_k$:
• $X^2 = D_{K-1} - D_K$
$D_{K-1}$ is the model deviance, where independent variable $k$ is excluded from the model. $D_{K}$ is the model deviance, where independent variable $k$ is included in the model.
$t = \dfrac{r_s \times \sqrt{N - 2}}{\sqrt{1 - r_s^2}}$
where $r_s$ is the sample Spearman correlation and $N$ is the sample size. The sample Spearman correlation $r_s$ is equal to the Pearson correlation applied to the rank scores.
$t = \dfrac{\bar{y} - \mu_0}{s / \sqrt{N}}$
$\bar{y}$ is the sample mean of the difference scores, $\mu_0$ is the population mean of the difference scores according to H0, $s$ is the sample standard deviation of the difference scores, $N$ is the sample size (number of difference scores).

The denominator $s / \sqrt{N}$ is the standard error of the sampling distribution of $\bar{y}$. The $t$ value indicates how many standard errors $\bar{y}$ is removed from $\mu_0$
Sampling distribution of $X^2$ and of the Wald statistic if H0 were trueSampling distribution of $t$ if H0 were trueSampling distribution of $t$ if H0 were true
Sampling distribution of $X^2$, as computed in the model chi-squared test for the complete model:
• chi-squared distribution with $K$ (number of independent variables) degrees of freedom
Sampling distribution of the Wald statistic:
• If defined as Wald $= \dfrac{b_k^2}{SE^2_{b_k}}$: approximately a chi-squared distribution with 1 degree of freedom
• If defined as Wald $= \dfrac{b_k}{SE_{b_k}}$: approximately a standard normal distribution
Sampling distribution of $X^2$, as computed in the likelihood ratio chi-squared test for individual $\beta_k$:
• chi-squared distribution with 1 degree of freedom
Approximately a $t$ distribution with $N - 2$ degrees of freedom$t$ distribution with $N - 1$ degrees of freedom
Significant?Significant?Significant?
For the model chi-squared test for the complete regression model and likelihood ratio chi-squared test for individual $\beta_k$:
• Check if $X^2$ observed in sample is equal to or larger than critical value $X^{2*}$ or
• Find $p$ value corresponding to observed $X^2$ and check if it is equal to or smaller than $\alpha$
For the Wald test:
• If defined as Wald $= \dfrac{b_k^2}{SE^2_{b_k}}$: same procedure as for the chi-squared tests. Wald can be interpret as $X^2$
• If defined as Wald $= \dfrac{b_k}{SE_{b_k}}$: same procedure as for any $z$ test. Wald can be interpreted as $z$.
Two sided:
Right sided:
Left sided:
Two sided:
Right sided:
Left sided:
Wald-type approximate $C\%$ confidence interval for $\beta_k$n.a.$C\%$ confidence interval for $\mu$
$b_k \pm z^* \times SE_{b_k}$
where $z^*$ is the value under the normal curve with the area $C / 100$ between $-z^*$ and $z^*$ (e.g. $z^*$ = 1.96 for a 95% confidence interval)
-$\bar{y} \pm t^* \times \dfrac{s}{\sqrt{N}}$
where the critical value $t^*$ is the value under the $t_{N-1}$ distribution with the area $C / 100$ between $-t^*$ and $t^*$ (e.g. $t^*$ = 2.086 for a 95% confidence interval when df = 20)

The confidence interval for $\mu$ can also be used as significance test.
Goodness of fit measure $R^2_L$n.a.Effect size
$R^2_L = \dfrac{D_{null} - D_K}{D_{null}}$
There are several other goodness of fit measures in logistic regression. In logistic regression, there is no single agreed upon measure of goodness of fit.
-Cohen's $d$:
Standardized difference between the sample mean of the difference scores and $\mu_0$: $$d = \frac{\bar{y} - \mu_0}{s}$$ Indicates how many standard deviations $s$ the sample mean of the difference scores $\bar{y}$ is removed from $\mu_0$
n.a.n.a.Visual representation
--
n.a.n.a.Equivalent to
--One sample $t$ test on the difference scores
Repeated measures ANOVA with one dichotomous within subjects factor
Example contextExample contextExample context
Can body mass index, stress level, and gender predict whether people get diagnosed with diabetes?Is there a monotonic relationship between physical health and mental health?Is the average difference between the mental health scores before and after an intervention different from $\mu_0$ = 0?
SPSSSPSSSPSS
Analyze > Regression > Binary Logistic...
• Put your dependent variable in the box below Dependent and your independent (predictor) variables in the box below Covariate(s)
Analyze > Correlate > Bivariate...
• Put your two variables in the box below Variables
• Under Correlation Coefficients, select Spearman
Analyze > Compare Means > Paired-Samples T Test...
• Put the two paired variables in the boxes below Variable 1 and Variable 2
JamoviJamoviJamovi
Regression > 2 Outcomes - Binomial
• Put your dependent variable in the box below Dependent Variable and your independent variables of interval/ratio level in the box below Covariates
• If you also have code (dummy) variables as independent variables, you can put these in the box below Covariates as well
• Instead of transforming your categorical independent variable(s) into code variables, you can also put the untransformed categorical independent variables in the box below Factors. Jamovi will then make the code variables for you 'behind the scenes'
Regression > Correlation Matrix
• Put your two variables in the white box at the right
• Under Correlation Coefficients, select Spearman
• Under Hypothesis, select your alternative hypothesis
T-Tests > Paired Samples T-Test
• Put the two paired variables in the box below Paired Variables, one on the left side of the vertical line and one on the right side of the vertical line
• Under Hypothesis, select your alternative hypothesis
Practice questionsPractice questionsPractice questions